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History of paper and its characteristics
Prior to the invention of paper, man used himself in various ways to express himself through writing. In India palm leaves were used. The Eskimos used whale bones and seal teeth. In China it was written in shells and turtle shells. The most famous raw materials were Papyrus and Parchment.
The first, the papyrus, was invented by the Egyptians and despite its fragility, thousands of papyrus documents came to us. The parchment was much more resistant, since it was animal skin, usually sheep, calf or goat and had a very high cost. The Mayans and Aztecs kept their books of mathematics, astronomy, and medicine in bark, called "tonalamatl."
The word paper originates from the Latin "papyrus". Name given to a vegetable of the family "Cepareas" (Cyperua papyrus). The marrow of his stems was employed, as a support of writing, by the Egyptians, 2,400 years before Christ. However, the Chinese were the first to make the paper as it is today, beginning the production of paper from bamboo fibers and silk.
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The emergence, in the East
The invention of paper made from vegetable fibers is attributed to the Chinese. The invention would have been the work of the Chinese minister of agriculture Tsai-Lun, in the year 123 BC. The sheet of paper manufactured at the time would be made by the fiber of Morus papyrifer or Broussonetia papurifera, Kodzu and the Chinese herb "Boehmeria", in addition to bamboo.
Around 610 AD, the Korean monks Doncho and Hojo, sent to China by the King of Korea, spread the invention through Korea and also Japan. Among the prisoners who arrived in Samarkand (Central Asia), there were some who learned the techniques of manufacturing. The paper manufactured by the Samarkandos and Koreans, later, were made with remains of fabrics, despising the other fibrous materials. Around 795 a paper mill was set up in Baghdad (Turkey). The industry flourished in the city until the fifteenth century. In Damascus (Syria), in the tenth century, in addition to objects of art, textiles and carpets, the paper called the Damascene letter, which was exported to the West, was made.
Entry through Spain
The manufacture was soon extended to the coasts of North Africa, arriving until Europe by the Iberian peninsula, where around 1150 the Arabs implanted it in Xativa (Spain).
The makers of Játiva produced cotton paper in the eleventh century. The material of fragile consistency, judging by the rough shows of later times that have been preserved, reveal an elaboration obtained with scarce elements based on raw cotton. In addition to Játiva, another Spanish city dominating the production of paper was Toledo, where paper called "Toledo" was made.
The Arabs themselves came to import the paper manufactured in Spain in the ninth and tenth centuries, but the widespread use of the Spanish paper only occurred in the thirteenth century. There are records, albeit controversial, of paper production in Valencia, Gerona and Manresa, in the period. In the fourteenth century, the industry extended to the regions of Aragon and Catalonia, although the skin parchment was still widely used.
The emergence of the press
Hands holding a paper. From the invention of the press, the increase in consumption caused the number of paper mills to increase. If the increase in typographic production, on the one hand consumed infinitely more paper than before, in the time of copyists, the need to import implied for the consumer countries greater difficulty in producing, since the ships carrying the paper manufactured in Flanders or in Italy, carried scraps of fabric used for their countries. Several countries even banned the export of rags, without which the national paper industry could not raise production to meet ever-increasing consumption.
Other countries in Europe
In Germany, the earliest initiatives in paper production date back to the end of the twelfth century. The pioneer cities were Kaufheuren in 1312; Nuremberg in 1319 and Augsburg in 1320. Munich, Leesdorf and Basel, which also set up their factories in the same century, are often followed by the demand of the printing presses linked to the Church and the Universities. In France, where paper was already handmade since 1248, the first mill was found in the town of Troyes in 1350. In England the paper only began to be produced industrially in 1460 in the town of Steuenage and almost a century later (1558) at Dartford.
In Italy paper had already been made since 1200 in Fabriano, where it had been introduced by Pace. There are also those who claim that the first manufacturer would be Bernardo of Prague, while others maintain that the primacy would belong to Master Polese, who is also credited with innovation in the substitution of cotton for linen. The Italian cities, which imported the paper in the thirteenth century, were already supplied in the fourteenth century by the paperwork of Fabriano, Pádia and Caller, where the industry was well developed. Before 1500, there were already industries in Saboia, Lombard, Tosca and Rome.
Until the end of the eighteenth century, papermaking was entirely artisanal. Paper mills were primitive workshops, and the sheets of paper were made one by one in very small quantities. Industry appears only when it is possible to mechanize the process.
The fact that gave the great impulse to the making of paper was undoubtedly the invention of the press and then the Reformation, with the great intellectual resurgence that developed throughout the Renaissance period. This factor was then followed by the continuous paper machine. A French laborer, Louis Robert, in 1799 obtained a patent for a shaking machine which in 1800 was sold to Didot, the director of the Saint-Leger factory. Juan Gamble patented for England and explored it in partnership with Fourdrinier and Donkin, greatly perfecting the machine.
The role in the Americas
The first paper mill in the United States was established in 1690 by Guillermo Rittenhousa in Germantown, Pennsylvania, where the essential raw material was supplied by the population (cotton rags and linen) and water was plentiful. By 1800, there were more than 180 paper mills in the United States, and cloth rags became scarce (and expensive). The first US paper on wood pulp paper was printed in 1863 in Boston, Massachusets (Boston Weekly Journal).
In Brazil
The first paper mill in Brazil comes with the arrival of the Portuguese royal family. Located in Andaraí Pequeno (RJ), it was founded between 1808 and 1810 by Henrique Nunes Cardoso and Joaquim José da Silva. In 1837 the industry of André Gaillar appears and, in 1841, that of Zeferino Ferrez.
Paper Conservation
Most processes related to the care of historical papers, books, and maps are of an overly technical nature. Here you will find the basics and simple processes that can be used safely for the preservation and maintenance of papers. By providing these rules, which are not complete, we observe that much can be done to keep the materials in use condition without causing further damage. A word of caution though: methods should not be applied indiscriminately in all situations. A professional restorer should be consulted when dealing with documents of value or large volume of material in advanced stage of deterioration. Without such advice it is better to do nothing than to do the wrong thing.
The durability of paper
Paper is an organic substance composed of plant cellulose fibers; because of its organic nature, the paper will deteriorate if not properly or stored. Papers made in the period beginning in the twelfth century and ending in the mid nineteenth century were strong and durable; and many books and originals published before 1850 are still in excellent condition. Modern paper is usually made from wood fibers that have been mechanically ground for printing newspapers or produced chemically for writing books and papers. Some thinner papers also contain cotton or flax fibers. Most modern papers, unless they are free of acids or are classified as of permanent durability, have an expected life of less than 50 years.
Causes of deterioration
The rapid deterioration of modern papers results from the use of acids that break the cellulose fibers into ever shorter pieces, thereby weakening the paper. Acid decay can be accompanied by yellowish or brown discoloration, a condition caused by the use of alum-resin compounds as the glue agents that generate sulfuric acid when the atmospheric moisture is normal. The use of low-grade cellulose and impure wood fibers rather than chemically purified pulp is another factor in the deterioration of modern paper. The lignin or "glue" that hold the fibers together with the wood degrades to form acids that weaken the paper. Although most papers contain some unpurified wood fibers, the most common example of low standard paper is the press. Other factors that influence paper deterioration are: air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and ozone; the invisible radiation of sunlight and fluorescent light; the short wavelengths of visible light; the growth of microorganisms such as mold and bacteria; and insects and rodents that feed the paper itself.
Temperature
High temperatures, combined with high humidity, facilitate acid reactions that contribute to paper deterioration. Thus, paper life can be extended by reducing the storage temperature; theoretically, the life of the paper doubles with the reduction of every 6ºC in the temperature. A constant storage temperature of 20ºC is considered ideal, being quite comfortable to the workers and low enough not to damage materials. Large fluctuations in temperature variation are extremely damaging, as are high temperatures. Consequently, papers and books should never be stored in attic areas where wide fluctuations are common, and temperatures of up to 65 ° C can occur in summer days.
Moisture
Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapor in the air to the amount that saturates the air (rh 100%) at a given temperature and at a given air pressure. Relative high humidity (exceeding 68%) causes swelling and warping of paper fibers and accelerates acid deterioration. Also, high moistness in the presence of metal staples and paper clips will cause oxidation stains, even if no actual water damage occurs. Low humidity (below 40%) will cause the paper to dry out and become fragile; often on this scale, the fragile pages will stick together as a result of static electricity, and may tear if care is not taken when flipping them.
Seasonal fluctuations of less than 10% in winter to more than 90% in summer are detrimental to paper. Modern book papers should be stored at 40% to 50% relative humidity; as leather bindings are best kept between 45% and 55%; vellum or parchment 50% to 60%, a good solution is the storage at 50% of humidity of the air, being able to oscillate between 45% to 60%. Fluctuations within the range should be kept to a minimum. Humidity levels in a small storage area can be maintained with a small air conditioner, dehumidifier or humidifier.
Basement storage areas are not desirable due to the risk of flooding and usually high levels of humidity.
Straightening of folded or rolled paper
Papers with folds or rolled for long periods tend to become dry or brittle; and smoothing can cause cellulose fibers to rupture and permanent paper damage. Restoring paper moisture through loosening and softening of the fibers makes the paper flat and smooth more easily.
The best method of restoring moisture is to place the paper in a place of high humidity (around 100% relative humidity) for one or two days. The documents may be placed in a container with water or moistened with a damp sponge so that the water does not come in direct contact with the material. A larger plastic container can be used by placing in the bottom of this a smaller vessel with water (it can be a pan, for example). On this, the volumes or papers, properly protected from the direct contact with the deposited water (use a grid or canvas as support), are placed. Also avoid the contact of the papers with the condensed water that forms in the walls of the container.
Alternatively, the sheets or rolled material may also be applied with a damp sponge. The risk of this method is the possibility of erasing water-resistant inks, or of changing the colors of the illustrations. In any case, once the paper has absorbed moisture, the planing can be processed more easily. Once flattened, the paper should be left to dry under pressure. Loose pages or small bundles of paper can be separated with absorbent paper (paper towel or blotting paper), and over them a piece of heavy wood block, books or other hard material. Hold it for a day or two until it is dry.
Mold or mildew
Storing materials under the suggested conditions of temperature and humidity can prevent mold or mildew. As mold spores are always present in the air and dust that attaches to the documents, if the recommended conditions are not maintained, the danger of mold formation and damage to the documents exists. Relative humidity of 70% combined with high temperatures favor the development of mold or mildew, although many molds grow easily around 5 ° C if the humidity is high. The lack of air circulation is also a favorable condition for the attack of these molds and molds.
Once it has occurred, the mold is difficult to control and serious damage risks can occur before the situation is perceived. Prevention, therefore, is easier than cure. The environment should be monitored periodically to avoid favorable conditions for mold or mildew formation. In the early stages, mold formation may be too small to be considered a problem. Visible evidence can be swept out and material may be stored below recommended conditions without further concern. At a later stage, the mold can digest the material at will upon which it is seated, resulting in misleading internal stains that cause damage to the strength of the material.
Atmospheric pollutants
Damage from airborne pollutants is more evident in old books and piles of old paper when the edges of the pages are discolored by the acids while the crumb remains almost white. Damage caused by certain gases such as sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulphate and nitrogen dioxide from fossil fuel combustion are more serious in industrial areas. Generally large and expensive filtration systems are required to remove the pollutants, not to save means of protection is the alternative for the small collector.
Some of the components are not hazardous when combined with other components as they form acids. For example, sulfur dioxide is catalyzed by another element in the air in the form of sulfur trioxide, which, together with water vapor, form sulfuric acid.
Ozone, the penetrating gas generated by the interaction of sunlight and dioxide and nitrogen, cause self-exhaustion and one which is also prevalent over electric motors and after thunderstorms, cause oxidation and leaves the paper brittle.
Light
Exposure to ultraviolet rays and fluorescent lighting causes the paper to deteriorate rapidly. But the most serious deterioration can occur with exposure to visible light, to rays ranging from the red end of the spectrum
Visible light effects include: bleaching and darkening of the paper. The latter usually occurs more quickly with newspapers. The loosening of the fibers, which results in the disintegration of the paper, is not immediately noticed. Unfortunately, the reactions continue after the cause of the problem is withdrawn, although to a lesser extent.
Other factors are equal, paper stored in complete darkness can also suffer as much damage as subjects to light. Storage in the dark is not usually practiced today. Other steps can be taken: Paper should never be stored under direct sunlight or fluorescent light without diffusers. Materials that filter ultraviolet lights can be used to coat windows or fixtures.
Insects and rodents
Insects and rodents are attracted to paper pulp, proteins and carbohydrates in glues, varnishes and other organic substances. The best way to avoid insects and rodents is to practice good domestic habits: do not take food to the storage area, protect windows and eliminate any insects or rodents observed.
